Armaments

Armaments are fighting tools, including devices for surveillance and reconnaissance. The first armaments were probably jagged pieces of rock (missile weapons) and crude wooden clubs (shock weapons), both instinctive adaptations of food-gathering implements. Eventually a combination created a battle axe or spear, which like most weapons could be used either offensively or defensively. Wood or leather in the form of shield or body armour was purely defensive and of little value by itself. The variety of defensive armaments now ranges from spaced and layered steel and ceramic armour on tanks to airborne warning and command systems (AWACS).

Keywords

Military

Offensive weapons have become more complex and deadly, with greater range, accuracy and hitting power. Modern missile weapon systems can be conveniently broken down into 3 components: a transportation and launching platform, a delivery mechanism and the missile itself. They range from the foot soldier bearing an automatic rifle to the nuclear-powered submersible carrying submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) holding multiple, independently targeted re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) with atomic warheads, remote piloted vehicles (RPVs) and aircraft loaded with napalm, bombs or target-seeking missiles.

The high technology aspect of some current armaments, such as satellite reconnaissance and computerized laser range-finding and communications, makes it extremely difficult to distinguish in some instances between armaments and industrial tools. Space may become a battlefield of the future involving nuclear-powered lasers and other exotic devices. The American "strategic defense initiative" (SDI), implemented by President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, was the first step toward establishing such defensive measures. The program was abandoned in 1993 due to cost, lack of technological advances and the objections of other countries that the system could be used offensively. America's SDI has been replaced by Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD).

Helicopter Hovering
A CH-136 Kiowa light observation helicopter from 427 Tactical Helicopter Squadron, CFB Petawawa, Ontario (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

Canadian Soldier in Cyprus
A Canadian soldier patrols the Green Line in Nicosia. He carries a C-7 rifle (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

Early Armaments

Archaeological evidence suggests that prehistoric armaments in North America developed in the same sequence as in other parts of the world. The earliest written evidence comes from the 14th-century Greenlanders' Saga, which recounts that NORSE adventurers armed with axes exploring the N Atlantic coast about 1000 AD fought with "skraelings" (perhaps BEOTHUKS) who used bows and arrows. These were still the dominant weapons when Europeans began to infiltrate the continent again in the 16th century, bringing with them the age of gunpowder.

Grizzly Personnel Carrier
Soldiers of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry attack from a "Grizzly" wheeled armoured personnel carrier during a training exercise in BC (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

Jacques CARTIER used primitive hand guns ("fire lances") to impress Aboriginals in the Baie des Chaleurs during the summer of 1534, and mounted cannon on the ramparts of his Québec fort in the winter of 1535. In 1609 Samuel de CHAMPLAIN, allying himself with Huron and Algonquin warriors, killed 2 Iroquois with his arquebus (a matchlock musket), thus initiating a long-lived enmity. Pehr KALM, a Swedish traveller, reported 140 years later that there was scarcely a French Canadian "who was not a clever marksman and who did not own a rifle." He also noted the production of cannon and mortars at the FORGES SAINT-MAURICE near Trois-Rivières. Some Indians were armed with muskets by that time, although the bow and tomahawk remained more popular.

As the indigenous inhabitants were subdued, driven farther west or killed, fighting in North America between people of European descent relied increasingly upon more sophisticated missile weapons and the limited Canadian production of armaments ceased. In the early 19th century the flintlock musket gave way to the breech-loading rifle, while an ever smaller proportion of people possessed weapons. Some magazine rifles from the US were used by the Canadian Militia to repel the FENIANS in 1866 and 1870, and an American Gatling machine gun was used in suppressing the NORTH-WEST REBELLION of 1885. However, the militia continued to rely upon British rifles and artillery.

The Dominion

The DOMINION ARSENAL began to produce small arms ammunition in 1882, but the first Canadian-built, breech-loading magazine rifle issued to the militia was the Ross (a variation on the Austrian Mannlicher), which first went into production in 1903. An excellent sporting rifle, it proved unsatisfactory under the rigours of active service in 1915, and production ceased in March 1917. In the CANADIAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE, it was replaced with the British Lee-Enfield rifle. Militiamen were again issued ROSS RIFLES for home defence during WORLD WAR II.

For that war Canada manufactured a wide range of armaments, including combat aircraft such as the de Havilland Mosquito and Avro Lancaster bombers, armoured vehicles, artillery and naval guns, landing craft, convoy escorts, radios, RADAR, SONAR, small arms and enormous quantities of ammunition, explosives and pyrotechnics. Few, however, were of Canadian design, nor were Canadian forces necessarily equipped with them. One of the rare Canadian design initiatives, the Ram tank, was not a success and was never used in action; Ram hulls, however, with the turrets removed, were used in NW Europe in 1944 as the first armoured personnel carriers (APCs).

Since WWII Canada has continued to rely largely upon armament designs of its allies, sometimes modified to meet Canadian needs, for major weapon systems (see BOMARC MISSILE CRISIS). For example, the British Centurion tank served as Canada's main battle tank for 25 years, 1952-77. Exceptions have been the AVRO CF-100 fighter aircraft and the various classes of small warships in the naval service, most notably the "Tribal" Class destroyers and "St Laurent" Class destroyer escorts. Advanced and complex projects such as the Bobcat APC, the AVRO ARROW fighter and the Bras d'Or hydrofoil have had to be abandoned because of restricted marketing possibilities and excessive design costs.

Northern Terrain Vehicle
The BV-206 Northern Terrain Vehicle is capable of operations in all climates and terrains (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

Restigouche-Class Destroyers
Two Restigouche-Class destroyers take on fuel from HMCS "Provider," an operational support ship (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

Modern Weapons

Canada has had more success in producing high technology components for American weapon systems. NATO allies employ the Canadian-designed CRV-7 air-to-ground rockets, "Elsie" anti-personnel mines and the extended-range, full-bore (ERFB) artillery rounds. Canadian forces depend heavily upon the Hornet fighter and Twin Huey, Kiowa and Sea King helicopters (all American) and the Leopard C 1 tank (W German), armed with a variety of appropriate missiles, for their tactical launching platforms. Small arms currently carried by the Canadian infantryman (who rides in American-designed, Canadian-built APCs) include Belgian rifles and light machine guns, American heavy machine guns and antitank and antiaircraft missile launchers.

CF-18 Fighter over Germany
A CF-18 fighter from 409 Tactical Fighter Squadron, CFB Baden-Soellingen, FRG, flies over clouds in southern Germany (courtesy National Defence Headquarters).

As part of the NORAD agreement, nuclear-tipped air-to-air missiles under American control were held in Canada to be used by Canadian aircraft in case of need. With the adoption of the CF-18 Hornet during the 1980s, these have been phased out of service. Canadian forces are also backed by American nuclear weapon systems, but Canada has renounced nuclear armaments of her own, a decision that in 1970 removed the Honest John missile, acquired in 1961, from the Canadian weapon inventory. Meanwhile, arguments over the offensive or defensive nature of weapons systems such as the Cruise missile and the Stealth bomber rage fruitlessly, since - as in prehistoric times - their use is largely a function of the intentions of those who wield them.

See also DISARMAMENT.

Author BRERETON GREENHOUS

Links to Other Sites

Canadian War Museum
The Canadian War Museum in Ottawa is dedicated to the men and women who served with valour and distinction in Canada’s armed services. Their website features a virtual tour of the museum and multimedia online exhibits that depict how Canada met and overcame wartime challenges throughout its history.

Canada At War
This timeline depicts Canadian involvement in military conflicts from the first world war to present day operations. From Veterans Affairs Canada.

Glossary: Military Terms
A glossary of military terminology commonly used in the Canadian Army. From the website for the Department of National Defence.

Glossary: World War II
A glossary of World War II military terms. From the Virtual Museum website.

History Television
Check out the History Television website for fascinating features about Canadian and world history.

World War, 1914-1918
Explore this extensive collection of photographs depicting Canadian military activity in World War I. Part of the CN Images of Canada Gallery at the Canada Science and Technology Museum website.

Lévis Forts National Historic Site of Canada
This Parks Canada website is dedicated to the Lévis Forts in the Québec city region. Offers a detailed history of the design of the military armaments and fortifications at this site.

Forges du Saint-Maurice National Historic Site of Canada
This Parks Canada site presents the intriguing history of French and English iron making operations at Canada's first industrial village.

Canada at War
A very detailed information source about Canadian military action during World War I and World War II. Also features an extensive database of Canadian soldiers who sacrificed their lives in WWI, WWII, and Korea.

Wartime Production
In honour of the 60th anniversary of D-Day, the Archives of Ontario presents this stirring retrospective of Ontario’s extraordinary Home Front contribution to the war effort. Check out the personal stories, photographs, posters, video clips and other multimedia.

Library and Archives Canada: Military and Peacekeeping
Check out the online exhibits about the history of Canadian military and peacekeeping operations featured at the website for Library and Archives Canada. View paintings by Canada's great war artists, gripping photographs of war on the frontlines, war diaries and stories, multimedia, and much more.

Through a Lens: Dieppe in Photography and Film
The horrors of war are clearly depicted in this collection of old photographs and newsreels about the disastrous Allied raid on Dieppe in World War II. From Library and Archives Canada.

Doing Our Bit: Canadians and the Great War
Compelling stories about the extraordinary bravery and patriotism of ordinary Canadians who took part in Canada’s World War I effort at home and overseas. Illustrated with posters, pictures and photos. From the Toronto Public Library. A very large PDF file.

Canadian Military History Gateway
Search this website for authoritative information about Canadian military history. Provides online access to Canadian museums, libraries, archives, and other heritage organizations. Also features an online glossary of military terminology, educational resources and much more. From the Department of National Defence.

Testaments of Honour Historical Archives
Stunning photographs complement this digital video archive of personal recollections from Canadian veterans who fought in World War II. This Blake Heathcote project has been supported by the Canadian Studies Program, Canadian Heritage, and many other organizations. Note: some videos on this site may not be functional.

VICTORIA Class Submarines: An Indispensable Asset
This Department of National Defence website discusses the operational role and specifications of Canada’s Victoria Class submarines.

INDEPTH: CANADA'S MILITARY
Features stories about Canadian military operations, peacekeeping forces, and the status of major armament programs. From the CBC.

Canadian Forces Combat Camera
This extensive archive of photographs and video clips provides an up close view of contemporary Canadian military operations and personnel. From the Department of National Defence. Consult Library and Archives Canada for historical information and images about the Canadian military.

Canadian Military Journal
The online edition of the "Canadian Military Journal." Many articles about contemporary military issues, compelling history features, book reviews, and much more.

Canadians and Conflict
"Canadians and Conflict" is an illustrated online textbook about Canadian military history. Covers Canada's participation in international military conflicts and related political issues, developments in military technology, and much more. Produced by the Edmonton Public School Board.

Canadian Defence & Foreign Affairs Institute
This organization provides comprehensive policy analysis to promote understanding of Canada’s foreign affairs and aid policies and the state of military preparedness. Numerous online publications are available on their website.

Royal Canadian Military Institute
This Toronto institute focuses on the area of defence studies, particularly on issues related to Canadian military heritage and contemporary Canadian security. Offers many online papers and reports related to military issues.

Glossary: Military History
A glossary of terms that relate to military history. Check the rest of the site for additional information. From the Department of National Defence.

Glossary: Military Terms
A glossary of military terminology from the website for the Department of Defense in the US. A PDF file. Scroll down to page 8 for the glossary.

Glossary: Battle of the Plains of Abraham
A glossary of terminiology related to the siege of Québec and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Check this site for more information on this topic. From the Virtual Museum website "1759: From the Warpath to the Plains of Abraham."

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