Keywords Energy

Primary energy resources are frequently described as renewable or nonrenewable. Renewable energy resources include geothermal heat, falling water, tidal forces, wind action, solar input, vegetable and animal matter, and ocean thermal gradients. Nonrenewable resources include hydrocarbon materials such as natural gas, crude oil, bitumen and coal, as well as isotopes from which energy may be extracted through nuclear fission or NUCLEAR FUSION. The extraction of primary energy resources and their use, either direct or after conversion to secondary forms, have resulted in the evolution of sophisticated technologies and systems during the 20th century. There have been rapid developments in resource exploitation, mining, refining, machine design and operation, pipeline transportation, electric-power transmission and energy marketing. Since 1900 world annual energy consumption has increased more than 10-fold. The expected large growth in future world population would mean that continued increase in per capita energy demand would double the world's energy requirement again between 1980 and 2000. Human ingenuity would be taxed to meet such a supply challenge.

Tidal Power Plant
The Annapolis Tidal Power Plant was the first to transform tidal energy to electricity (courtesy Tidal Power Corp).

Energy Use
The graph shows the amount of energy produced in Canada by each method (artwork by Michael Lee).

Resources
The bulk of purchased secondary energy is provided by non-renewable resources - crude oil, coal and natural gas. Additional energy was derived from noncommercial renewable sources such as wood wastes and animal refuse (BIOMASS ENERGY), SOLAR ENERGY, wind action and geothermal steam (see WIND ENERGY, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY). Renewable energy forms are particularly important to those developing areas of the world where crude oil and natural gas are neither indigenous nor affordable, and where sophisticated systems of power generation, transmission and distribution have not yet been introduced. In many such areas, population pressure is leading to an increased demand for energy and other resources and consequently to a rapid denudation of the world's forested tropical and subtropical zones. Concern is growing, therefore, about serious future climatic and ecological changes that may be precipitated on a worldwide scale as a result of the existing, often rapacious, exploitation of the forests.

World dependence on crude oil as an energy source has grown remarkably but oil production levels fluctuate, most often due to corporate strategy or political situations. In 1985 production dropped to 9.1 million m³/day from 10.5 million m³ in 1979. The decrease was partly caused by a glut of oil which developed following a 2-fold price increase imposed in 1979-80 by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Another factor affecting the decrease was the increased cost of developing replacement reserves for those being consumed so rapidly. Economic problems in Asia dampened world oil demand in 1998, weakening the world oil market. Concurrently, production from non-OPEC countries rose, but production cuts from OPEC and some non-OPEC producers did not balance the market. Consequently, oil prices declined dramatically from the post-Gulf War highs in 1997 to 12-year lows. The price for benchmark crude West Texas Intermediate (WTI) averaged US$14.40 per barrel in 1998, a 30% decrease from 1997.

Increased Reliance on Sources
Hence, even assuming that judicious use and conservation of energy supplies will be pursued in the coming decades, it appears that increased reliance must be placed on coal, nuclear power and renewable energy sources. Unfortunately the development of each of these is likely to be impeded. The mining, transportation and combustion of coal impose severe environmental hazards which could restrict the industry's growth rate. Not the least of the concerns is that burning vast quantities of coal would cause a significant increase in the carbon-dioxide content of the Earth's atmosphere, and this might have a serious effect on the world's climate.

The direct environmental damage resulting from the installation and operation of nuclear power plants is much less severe. In fact, many technical experts consider nuclear power to be the most benign of all energy sources available for future long-term use. Antinuclear activists, however, have campaigned against this energy option on the basis of perceived hazards of low-level radiation effects, nuclear accidents, management of spent nuclear fuel, and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

The development of renewable energy resources has been curtailed by economic constraints. Meaningful sources of geothermal steam, for example, are few in number, and many of them are located far from large consumer centres. Similar limitations apply to the relatively small number of large hydroelectric sites remaining to be developed. Perhaps the most promising future prospect for renewable resource development is in the utilization of solar energy for direct use in heating, and for conversion to hydrocarbons or for generation of electricity. Many technical and economic challenges remain to be overcome, however, before solar energy can successfully compete with the traditional nonrenewable energy sources. Most industrialized countries are not expected to become self-sufficient in long-term energy supplies because of the paucity of indigenous sources. Canada is an exception. It has a large landmass, a relatively small population and a profusion of proven and potential resources that include crude oil, natural gas, oil sands, coal, undeveloped hydroelectric sites, large uranium deposits and a highly sophisticated nuclear technology. The federal-provincial sharing of responsibility for resource control, ownership and taxation imposes barriers to efficient development, but the plethora of resource wealth may be large enough to overcome such man-made obstacles.

Canadian Overview
In Canada in 1998, conventional light crude oil production increased, mainly due to the East Coast Hibernia offshore field, which completed its first full year of production. Synthetic crude and bitumen production also rose. However, conventional heavy crude oil production declined as production was suspended in a significant number of wells because of low prices.

Overall, oil exploration and development decreased in Canada in 1998, due to sustained low oil prices. Many western Canadian producers shifted their focus to gas drilling. However, in contrast to the overall slowdown in activity in western Canada, exploration and development in offshore regions of the East Coast and northern onshore areas increased.

North American natural gas prices declined slightly in 1998 and Canadian natural gas prices remained at levels lower than average US market prices. Although natural gas production decreased slightly, exports increased by about 6%. Drilling for natural gas remained fairly stable and reserve additions are expected to replace a large portion of production in 1998.

Canadian electricity exports fell slightly from the elevated levels experienced between 1994 and 1997. Imports met increased domestic requirements, which resulted in part because of the temporary removal from service of 7 nuclear power plants in Ontario.

Author O.J.C. RUNNALLS

Suggested Reading
Energy, Mines and Resources, Current Energy Statistics (1987); W. Hàfele, Energy in a Finite World (1986); National Energy Board of Canada, Canadian Energy Supply and Demand, 1985-2005 (1986); W. Sassin, "Energy," Scientific American (Sept 1980).

Links to Other Sites
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
The official webpage of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.

Petro-Canada
The website for the integrated oil and gas company Petro-Canada. Their website offers an overview of core businesses, including the exploration, production and marketing of petroleum ducts in Canada and overseas. Also features information about corporate governance, investor relations and their Corporate Community Investment program.

Glossary: Solar Power
Glossary of solar power terms from Sunpark Energy Corp.

Candu: The Canadian Nuclear Reactor
This multimedia CBC website examines various issues concerning Canada’s nuclear energy program.

Alberta Economic History
This interactive "tutorial" offers an overview of the economic history of southern Alberta. From the University of Calgary.

Energy Glossary
A glossary of electricity-related words from the website for Ontario Power Generation Inc.

Electricity Industry in Canada
This website features a brief history of the electricity industry in Canada. From the Canadian Electricity Association.

TransAlta: Glossary
A glossary of terms related to generation of electrical power. From the website for TransAlta, a power generation and wholesale marketing company.

Pipeline: Inside the Oil Patch
The latest news about the Canadian petrochemical industry. From the Calgary Herald.

Energy Council of Canada
The website for the Energy Council of Canada.

Ocean Energy
This illustrated online brochure describes how "green power" can be harnessed from the ocean waves and tides. Also, check this site for news updates about related projects. From the Ocean Renewable Energy Group. A PDF file.

Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability
The Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability focuses on developing sustainable futures through integrated research and academic programs. Check out the synopses of current and completed research projects. A University of British Columbia website.

North American Electric Reliability Corporation
NERC is concerned with maintaining the reliability and security of the bulk power system in North America. To achieve that, NERC develops and enforces reliability standards; monitors the bulk power system; assesses future adequacy; audits owners, operators, and users for preparedness; and educates and trains industry personnel.

Spectra Energy Corp
Information about western Canadian operations of Spectra Energy, a spin-off of Duke Energy's gas businesses. Check out the links to "Western Canada Transmission and Processing" for more information.

Re-Energy.ca
Re-Energy.ca is a hands-on renewable energy learning experience. Building working models of renewable energy technologies allows students in grades 7 through 12 to discover the fundamental principles of biology, chemistry and physics, and to explore the application of science and technology to social and environmental issues.

Ethanol Fuel
An informative resource about the production of ethanol fuel. From the website for Syntec Biofuel Research Inc.

Gas hydrates - Fuel of the future?
An extensive information source about research into the distribution, concentration, and stability of gas hydrate reservoirs in the Arctic and other locations on Canada's coasts. From Natural Resources Canada.

Abraham Gesner
A biography of Abraham Gesner, the inventor of kerosene. From the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online.