Keywords Islands

This geological variety produces spectacular variations in scenery, with rugged mountains, steep-sided fiords, and high and low plains of various ages and rock types. The Shield areas likely contain mineral deposits (including gold and diamonds), while oil and natural gas deposits have been found in areas of sedimentary rocks, such as the Sverdrup Basin. Coal is also found in these areas, and was discovered by early European explorers.

Melville Island, Satellite Image
This satellite photo shows different ice formations around Melville Island, NWT. The dark areas are first-year ice, the lighter multilayered ice. The jagged fracture lines are also visible (courtesy Canada Centre for Remote Sensing).

Geological Regions

Climate and Climate Change
By any measure, this is a truly polar environment. On the northern islands, night lasts 3 or 4 months in winter and day lasts the same period in summer. The average annual temperature may be as low as -20ºC in the north and -6ºC in southern Baffin Island, with extreme low temperatures in the order of -50ºC. In the high arctic islands, summer temperatures may rise above freezing for only one or 2 months. Annual precipitation is low, ranging from 400 mm on southern Baffin Island to less than 100 mm on central Ellesmere Island. The Queen Elizabeth Islands are a polar desert, with less than 150 mm of precipitation a year. The cold climate has led to the development of PERMAFROST, which underlies all of the land area and exceeds 550 m in thickness in many places. Only a thin (less than 1 m) active layer melts at the surface each summer.

Predicted CLIMATE CHANGE will occur earliest and most intensely in high-latitude areas, and changes have already been noticed in the High Arctic. Annual mean temperatures are predicted to increase by 3-7ºC over the coming century, with the greatest warming to occur in winter (as much as 12ºC). Summer precipitation is expected to increase strongly.

Flora
Trees are absent on the archipelago, and the TUNDRA vegetation consists of dwarf shrubs, forbs, sedges and grasses, mosses and lichens. In the northern islands, woody plant species become less prominent, and vegetation is sparse except in some lowland areas (polar oases) where the microclimate is warmer and there is greater snow accumulation. There are only about 200 vascular plant species, 200-300 species each of bryophytes and lichens on the arctic islands. Many plant species are widespread and have a circumpolar distribution.

Fauna
Only 19 species of land mammals live on the archipelago, generally in small numbers restricted to certain areas. The high arctic islands are home to Peary CARIBOU that are smaller and lighter in colour than the barren-ground caribou; they do not migrate like their mainland cousins. Other mammals in the archipelago include the MUSKOX, arctic fox, WOLF, LEMMING and arctic hare. Sixty-four species of birds spend the summer in the high arctic islands and only 6 species overwinter there. The surrounding seas are home to the POLAR BEAR, the WALRUS and various types of seal and whale, including the NARWHAL and the BELUGA.

Terrestrial arthropods are important components of the high-arctic tundra, and 381 species have been named from the archipelago: of these, 64% are insects, 20% are MITES and 12% are springtails. These proportions of known arthropods are notably different from southern Canadian ECOSYSTEMS where insects are 90%, mites are 6% and springtails are 1% of the total known species

Human Occupation
The High Arctic has been occupied by the INUIT and their predecessors for most of the past 4000 years, and today they live in coastal settlements scattered throughout the islands. The most northerly community in Canada is GRISE FIORD on southern Ellesmere Island, which was created in 1953 when the Canadian government relocated people from Port Harrison (now Inukjuak), Qué. Ancient links with the Greenlandic people are still maintained. Evidence has been found of contact between the Vikings, who lived in Greenland during the Middle Ages, and the islands (see NORSE VOYAGES). The non-Inuit population is generally made up of government and military personnel in communities such as IQALUIT, CAMBRIDGE BAY, RESOLUTE and the military station at ALERT.

PETER ADAMS Rev: GREG H.R. HENRY

Arctic Archipelago Channels
Exploration The seawaters of the Arctic Archipelago were first sighted by William BAFFIN, who sailed into Smith Sound and northern BAFFIN BAY in 1616 and who first recorded Jones Sound and Lancaster Sound, which is the eastern entrance to the NORTHWEST PASSAGE. In 1819 Sir William PARRY sailed through the west as far as McClure Strait, where he was stopped by ice. The Northwest Passage was finally sailed by Roald AMUNDSEN in 1903-06 and again by Sergeant HenryLARSEN of the RCMP in 1940-42 (west-east) and 1944 (east-west). The waters north of Baffin Bay, now known as Nares Strait, were explored from 1852 on.

Very little scientific OCEANOGRAPHY was done in the Arctic Islands until after World War II, although an excellent pioneer expedition under Otto SVERDRUP in 1898-1902 produced important geological and biological results. Danish expeditions and the US Coastguard vesselMarion in 1928 made oceanographic studies in Smith, Jones and Lancaster Sounds.

Waters
The depths of the channels range from less than 200 m to about 800 m in eastern Lancaster Sound. The most important sill (minimum) depths, related to water transport, are 140 m in Barrow Strait and 250 m in Nares Strait. The Continental Shelf varies from over 550 m in depth in the west and north to 200 m in the east. In spite of low tidal ranges, which decrease from east to west, tidal currents can be strong in certain narrow passages, such as BELLOT STRAIT, FURY AND HECLA STRAIT and Hell Gate.

The dominant water flow through the islands is from the Arctic Ocean southward through Nares Strait and eastward through Lancaster Sound and Fury and Hecla Strait. The first 2 currents flow into Baffin Bay and the latter into FOXE BASIN, HUDSON BAY and HUDSON STRAIT. The most recent estimate of the total transport of Arctic Ocean water through the islands is 2.1 million m³/s, but there is probably considerable annual variation. The depth and extent of the channels offer commercial possibilities (for submarine tankers) as well as some strategic concern (as an avenue of approach for submarines).

Ice cover, with an average thickness from 1.6 m to 2 m, is complete in winter throughout the archipelago, with the exception of several recurring polynyas (areas of open water surrounded by sea ice), the largest of which are in northern Baffin Bay and in the southeastern BEAUFORT SEA. These polynyas, which freeze late and thaw early, are a focus for marine and bird life. There is evidence of early human habitation, by the THULE and DORSET peoples, on the landmasses adjoining them.

Biologically, the waters of the archipelago are rich in mammals and birds (in summer) and poor in fishes. The plankton is typical of that of the upper 250 m of the Arctic Ocean.

Author M.J. DUNBAR, PETER ADAMS

Links to Other Sites
Research Facilities in Canada's North
Explore Canada's northern research infrastructure with the Canadian Polar Commission's interactive map of northern science facilities.

Canadian Arctic Archipelago
An interactive satellite image of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Click on the scale on the left side of the page to zoom in and out of the image. From the iTouchMap.com website.

Exploration of the Northwest Passage
An overview of European expeditions to Canada’s northern Arctic region from the 16th to the early 20th centuries. Brief bios, illustrations, maps, and other reference material. An Industry Canada website.

Arctic Institute of North America
The website for the Arctic Institute of North America. Offers an overview of projects related to the culture, economy, ecology, and geography of Canada's Arctic. Check out the online "Photographic Archives Collection." From the University of Calgary.

Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea
The website for the United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. Covers navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of resources on the seabed, passage of ships through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources, and more. Search this site for data related to Canadian sovereignty issues.

Remarkable fossil find opens window on polar life
About discoveries of remarkable fossilized remains of ancient animals in Canada's Arctic. From the canada.com website.

Quttinirpaaq National Park of Canada
This illustrated Parks Canada web site describes the ecology, geography and history of Quttinirpaaq National Park.

Arctic
Search the extensive "Images Canada" collection for historical images of Canada’s Arctic.

An Archaeological Expedition to Kuukpak
Take a virtual archaeological expedition to Kuukpak. A website from the Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre.

Ellesmere Island
A brief description and detailed map of Ellesmere Island. A University of Guelph website.

Nunavut Parks
Find out about Nunavut's territorial parks, heritage rivers, and other special places. A Government of Nunavut website.

North Circumpolar Region
A map of the Arctic region as viewed from the North Pole. From the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas. A pdf file.

A Geological Map of the Arctic
View a circumpolar bedrock geology map of the Arctic. Also includes explanatory notes and list of contributors. From the Geological Survey of Canada and related organizations. A PDF file.

Prince Patrick Island
A map and brief description of Prince Patrick Island. A University of Guelph website.

The International North Water Polynya Study
A fascinating website about the unique North Water region of the Arctic. Features an illustrated overview of related scientific issues and a gallery of captivating photographs of icebergs and other icy landscapes.

Renewed Search for the Northwest Passage
About the Royal Navy's search for a Northwest Passage in the 19th century. From the Canadian Military History Gateway.

Climate change causing 'corrosive' water to affect Arctic marine life: study
An article about “rapid” drops in ocean carbonate levels, a key component of shells in marine fauna. Includes photo of Canadian research vesel in Arctic waters. From vancouversun.com.

Canada's Arctic Sovereignty
An article about Canadian sovereignty over Arctic territory. From the "Canadian American Strategic Review" at Simon Fraser University.

Arctic Mission
Join this virtual voyage through the legendary Northwest Passage for an up close view of the effects of global warming in the Canadian Arctic. Discover 26 video clips, 789 photos, 21 scientific articles, 150 entries in the mission leader's and SEDNA's logs, and 27 360-degree panoramic images. An NFB website.

Journal of Glaciology
This site offers free access to selected articles from the "Journal of Glaciology." From the International Glaciological Society.

Annual cycle of light in the Northern Arctic
A graphical representation of the annual cycle of light in the Northern Arctic. From the GRID-Arendal website. From the UNEP/GRID-Arendal website.

Arctic Archaeology
An illustrated website about archaeological research and prehistoric culture in the Canadian Arctic. From the University of Waterloo.

Frozen Ocean
A superb online exhibit about the search for the Northwest Passage. Historic maps and images from books show how the Inuit assisted foreign led expeditions into the Canadian Arctic and how European explorers gradually accepted Inuit techniques of travel and survival. Contemporary maps show the lasting achievement of the expeditions: the mapping of the Canadian Arctic. From the Toronto Public Library.

Arctic Ocean Diversity Census of Marine Life
An international collaborative effort to inventory biodiversity in the Arctic sea ice, water column, and sea floor.

Baffin Island
Take a helicopter flight over the Barnes ice cap, part of the visual tour of Southwest Baffin Island. From the website for the Tukilik Foundation.

Alert
This article offers a glimpse into scientific research and military activities centred around Canadian Forces Station Alert, located at the northern tip of the most northerly island in Canada's Arctic Archipelago. From “Canadian Geographic” magazine.

Arctic Diary
Excerpts from an illustrated diary that chronicles the activities of a Canadian scientific research group working on the Arctic sea ice at the northern most tip of our country. From Canada Science and Technology Museum.

Maritime jurisdiction and boundaries in the Arctic region
This map offers a model of possible limits to maritime jurisdiction and boundaries for various countries in the Arctic region. From Durham University in the UK. A PDF file.

EducaPoles
In this website you will find several animations designed and produced by the International Polar Foundation on different topics linked to the polar regions, the way our planet's climate functions, climate change and energy.

Arctic Oil and Gas
An illustrated feature on developing Arctic oil and gas resources from Natural Resources Canada.

Glossary: Pollution
A glossary of terms related to pollutants found in the Canadian North. From Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.

Bernier Of The North
A profile of explorer Joseph-Elzéar Bernier, whose vogages helped establish Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic region. From the Legion Magazine.

New legislation strengthens Canada's Arctic sovereignty: Expert
A Canwest news story about federal legislation that strengthens Canada's sovereignty over its Arctic region.

Ellesmere Island loses huge ice shelf
A 2008 news story about the breaking away of the Markham Ice Shelf from Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic. From the canada.com website.

Cape Farewell
Check out the expedition blogs and multimedia clips at the website for Cape Farewell, an international organization that bring artists, scientists, and communicators together to raise awareness about climate change and related issues.

Flora of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Information page about the CD-ROM "Flora of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago" from the Canadian Museum of Nature.