Folk music

Few countries possess a folk music as rich and culturally varied as Canada's. Traditional folk music of European origin has been present in Canada since the arrival of the first French and British settlers in the 16th and 17th centuries (see Folk Music, Anglo-Canadian; Folk music, Franco-Canadian). They fished the coastal waters and farmed the shores of what became Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the St Lawrence River valley of Quebec. Men of the fur trade (and, later, the lumbering operations) brought much of this music further west and north into the forested areas of central Canada. The mingling of some of these men with various aboriginal tribes produced a population of non-Treaty Indians, known as Métis (eg, Pierre Falcon).

Agrarian settlement in eastern and southern Ontario and western Quebec in the early 19th century established a favorable milieu for the survival of many Anglo-Canadian folksongs and broadside ballads from Great Britain and the USA. Despite massive industrialization, folk music traditions have persisted in many areas until today. In the north of Ontario, a large Franco-Ontarian population kept folk music of French origin alive. Populous Acadian communities in the Atlantic provinces contributed their song variants to the huge corpus of folk music of French origin centred in the province of Quebec. A rich source of Anglo-Canadian folk music can be found in the Atlantic region, especially Newfoundland. Completing this mosaic of musical folklore is the Gaelic music of Scottish settlements, particularly in Cape Breton, and the hundreds of Irish songs whose presence in eastern Canada dates from the Irish famine of the 1840s which forced the large migrations of Irish to North America.

Mennonite and Icelandic settlements established 1874-5 in Manitoba heralded the new era of mass immigration to western Canada of peoples from eastern and western Europe and Asia. Ukrainians, Poles, Hungarians, Doukhobors, English, French, and other peoples broke the prairie sod for agricultural use in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During the same period in British Columbia, Chinese, Japanese, Sikhs, and, again, Doukhobors and other immigrants of European origin arrived in increasing numbers to complement the established Anglo-Canadian colonial population. A group of Okinawan-Japanese farmers settled in the Lethbridge area of Alberta, bringing with them a musical tradition quite different from that of Japan. Many European groups, especially the Finns, joined the new mining, pulp-and-paper, and agrarian communities of northern Ontario and the urban centres in the south.

After World War II a new wave of immigration to urban centres occurred, especially from southern Italy, the Baltic states, Hungary, Portugal, and the Caribbean. The 1970s and 1980s were marked by the massive arrivals of refugees fleeing from certain countries of Southeast Asia and Latin America. Jewish communities, whose presence in Canada dates back to the end of the 18th century, take an active part in the cultural and economic life of both urban and rural milieux. Finally, more than a hundred or so cultures brought their unique musical traditions, thus adding immensely to Canada's long-established musical heritage of French, English, Gaelic, and Irish folk music.

Whatever its cultural origin, traditional folk music has its roots in the common people. In certain genres one can observe that cross-fertilization between art music and folksong occurred at various times in the mother countries. In Canadian fishing villages, rural hamlets, and pioneer farming communities folk music provided the principal source of entertainment and a sense of continuity with the past. Some regions and cultural environments favored the creation of songs of purely Canadian orientation. Newfoundland - the oldest European settlement in North America - has the highest percentage of indigenous folksongs. In other cultures (eg, Lithuanian and Ukrainian) links with an archaic tribal past are discernible in melodies and texts in calendric ritual songs. The features of these songs of pagan origin have hardly been obscured by the more recent Christian influences which left a very superficial imprint. Christmas carols and New Year's and Easter songs are obvious examples. Others are concerned with the elaborate wedding cycles of many European cultures. English and French songs have lost most of this archaic ritual aspect, rarely showing origins before medieval times. Gaelic tunes have preserved more of the archaic flavour of the Celtic musical past. Most cultures have narrative genres such as ballads; less commonly, epics. Ballad genres cover an immense time span from the medieval period to the 20th century. Topics are manifold: love, war, heroic exploits, revenge, murder, disasters, and so on.

Short songs are most often concerned with love in its various aspects: unrequited, betrayed, occasionally fulfilled. Often they equal or surpass the beauty of pieces from the art music repertoire in melodic and poetic beauty. A surprisingly large percentage of traditional culture, whether European or Asiatic, consists of love songs, also dating from early times to the 20th century.

A host of songs about the sea, sailors, fishermen, sea disasters, sealing, whaling, lumbering, mining, railroading, cowboys, and so on, is of predominantly Anglo-Canadian origin, but there are several examples. of Franco-Canadian origin.

Other genres include lullabies, children's game songs, drinking songs, mouth music (nonsense syllables, often used for dancing), and macaronic songs (French-English, Ukrainian-English, etc). Immigrant songs and patriotic songs are found mostly among cultures of Scandinavian and other European origin, sometimes indicating nostalgia for the old countries and adaptation to a new environment.

With the exception of fundamentalist Christian sects (Doukhobor, Mennonite, Hutterite), all cultures have musical instruments, played solo or in concert for entertainment or to accompany dancing and, occasionally, singing. In Franco-Canadian, Anglo-Canadian and Gaelic music, the fiddle is the principal instrument, and it is common in other cultures as well. The most beautifully decorated is the eight-stringed Norwegian Hardinger fiddle, made in Norway Valley, Alta, until ca 1930. The building of string instruments for popular use has many adherents everywhere in Canada and fiddle making is a widespread activity among folk musicians. Other instruments in popular use in Franco- and Anglo-Canadian folk music include the guitar, button accordion, harmonica, whistle, jew's-harp, 'bones,' and spoons. Bagpipes, long associated with the Scots and Irish, have been found in more primitive folk versions among the Poles, Czechoslovaks, and other eastern European groups.

A partial listing follows of other instruments transplanted to Canada: zithers: Finnish (kantele), Lithuanian (kankles), Latvian (kokle), Estonian (kannel), Japanese (koto), Chinese (cheng or ch'in), Icelandic (langspil); dulcimers: Ukrainian (cymbaly), Hungarian (cimbalom), Chinese (yang-ch'in); bowed instruments: Chinese (er-hu, gau-hu), Yugoslavian (gusle), Polish (gesle); lutes, etc: Chinese (p'i'pa), Ukrainian (kobza, bandura), Sikh (sitar), Japanese (biwa); unfretted instruments: Japanese (shamisen), Okinawan (shamisen, snake-skin head), Chinese (san-hsien, forerunner of shamisen); flutes: Chinese (side-blown, and end-blown), Japanese (shakuhachi), Ukrainian (sopilka), Yugoslavian (frula); bagpipes: Lithuanian (skuduciai, single-toned, several lengths); drums and other percussion: Sikh, Chinese, Japanese.

Although much Franco- and Anglo-Canadian folk music has survived in rural as much as in urban environments in many areas of Quebec, Ontario, and the Atlantic provinces, the music of the more recently settled cultural groups has become confined largely to urban centres. Here, numerous ethnic cultural associations, choirs, instrumental ensembles, and folk-dance troupes have created from simple folksong repertoire, more sophisticated versions by their musical arrangements, which then become available on commercial recordings. A similar reprocessing of traditional English and French folksong through the electronic media by professional singers began in the 1940s. In the early 1960s a new generation of composer-lyricist-singers from French and English Canada began producing a body of songs in traditional style solely for concert and electronic presentation (see Folk music, contemporary).

See also EMC articles on individual collectors, ethnomusicologists, folksingers; articles on individual countries (eg, Ireland, Lithuania, Scotland, Ukraine, etc). For a guide to articles on religious groups (eg, Doukhobors, Mennonites) see Religions and music.

See also Accordion; Bagpipe, Great Highland; Ballads; Boîtes à chansons; Canadian Society for Musical Traditions; Chanson in Quebec; Chansonniers; Children's songs, traditional; Christmas; Coffeehouses; Country music; CPR Festivals; Disaster songs; Easter, Lent, the Passion; Ethnomusicology; Fiddling; Folk festivals; Folk-music-inspired composition; Guitar; Harmonica; Klondike; Lakes; Lullabies; Native North Americans in Canada; New Year's Day songs; Occupational songs; String instrument building. Many of these articles include bibliographies and discographies.

The recordings and publications listed below represent more than one ethnic group.

Discography
FOLKSONG COLLECTIONS

Gibbon, John Murray. Canada in Song (Toronto 1941)

Barbeau, Marius et al. Come A Singing! Canadian Folk-Songs, National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 107 (Ottawa 1947, 1973)

Fowke, Edith, and Johnston, Richard. Folk Songs of Canada (Wat 1954)

Fowke, Edith et al. Canada's Story in Song (Toronto 1960); repr as Singing Our History '(Toronto 1984)

Fowke, Edith, and Johnston, Richard. More Folk Songs of Canada (Wat 1967)

Fowke, Edith. Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs (Harmondsworth, Eng 1973)

Karp, Ellen. Many Are Strong Among the Strangers: Canadian Songs of Immigration (Ottawa, National Museum 1984)

Barron, John. Reflections of Canada, 3 vols (FH 1985, 1986, 1987)

The Best of Touch the Earth. (1981). 2-CBC LM-473

Canada's Favourite Folksongs for Kids. 1978. Ber 9031

Canada's Story in Song. A. Mills. 1960. 2-Folk FW-3000

Canadian Folk Songs. Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music, vol 8. 1954. Col SL-211

Canadian Folk Songs: A Centennial Collection. Y. Albert, H. Baillargeon, L. Forestier, C. Jordan, T. Kines, J. Labrecque, A. Mills, D. Oxner, J. Price, R. Roy, J. Sullivan. 1967; 9-RCI/RCA CS-100/(with RCI 423) 5-ACM 39 (CD)

Far Canadian Fields: Companion to the Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs. 1975. Leader LEE-4057

Folk Songs of Canada/ Folklores du Canada. T. Kines, L. Forestier, C. Jordan, Y. Albert, J. Sullivan, J. Labrecque, J. Price, D. Oxner. (1976). RCI-423/5-ACM 39 (CD)

Folk Songs of Canada. J. Sullivan, C. Jordan. 1955. Hallmark CS-3/Wat CS-3

Folk Songs of Canada. T. Kines. (1965). RCA Victor PCS-1014

The Green Fields of Canada. Jon Bartlett, Rika Reubsaat. (1985). CFMS (CSMT) 5-8501 (cass)

Harbour Grace: Songs of Eastern Canada. Rick Avery, Judy Greenhill. 1981. J & R JR-001

LaRena Sings for Country Folk. LaRena Clark. Clark LCS-112

Maple Sugar: Songs of Early Canada. T. Connors, H. Hibbs, E. Moorehead, University of Guelph Folk Choir. 1973. 2-Springwater S1-S2

Orealis. Orealis. 1987. Orealis UR-5-67 (cass)/Green Linnet SIF-1106.

Shave the Bear. Tamarack. (1989). SGB-9

Songs, Fiddle Tunes and a Folk-Tale from Canada. A. Mills, J. Carignan. 1961. Folk FG-3532

Lists of Canadian folk music recordings can be found in various catalogues published by the CSMT, and in that of Festival Records of Vancouver, associated with the Vancouver Folk Music Festival

Folksong Collections
Gibbon, John Murray. Canada in Song (Toronto 1941)

Barbeau, Marius et al. Come A Singing! Canadian Folk-Songs, National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 107 (Ottawa 1947, 1973)

Fowke, Edith, and Johnston, Richard. Folk Songs of Canada (Wat 1954)

Fowke, Edith et al. Canada's Story in Song (Toronto 1960); repr as Singing Our History '(Toronto 1984)

Fowke, Edith, and Johnston, Richard. More Folk Songs of Canada (Wat 1967)

Fowke, Edith. Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs (Harmondsworth, Eng 1973)

Karp, Ellen. Many Are Strong Among the Strangers: Canadian Songs of Immigration (Ottawa, National Museum 1984)

Barron, John. Reflections of Canada, 3 vols (FH 1985, 1986, 1987)

Bibliography
See also Writings for Marius Barbeau; Barbara Cass-Beggs; Helen Creighton; Edith Fowke; Ernest Gagnon; John Murray Gibbon; Robert Klymasz; Conrad Laforte; Alan Mills; Kenneth Peacock.

Barbeau, Marius. 'Folk-songs,' JAF, vol 31, Apr-Jun 1918

- 'Canadian folk songs as a national asset,' Canadian Club of Toronto Addresses (1927-8)

Tait, J.A. 'In the realm of folk-song,' M Can, vol 7, Nov 1928

Barbeau, Marius. 'Folk songs,' University of Toronto Q, vol 16, Jan 1947

Sargent, Margaret. 'Folk and primitive music in Canada,' National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 123 (Ottawa 1951); repr J of the International Folk Music Council, vol 4, Jan 1952

George, Graham. 'Seven Canadian folk-music records,' CMJ, vol 2, Winter 1958

Barbeau, Marius. 'Canadian folk songs,' J of the International Folk Music Council, vol 13, Jan 1961

Duncan, Chester. 'Folk song as history,' Canadian Literature, Spring 1961

Peacock, Kenneth. 'A Practical Guide for Folk Music Collectors,' CFMS mimeographed (Ottawa 1966)

'Centennial collection of Canadian folk songs issued,' CanComp, 23, Nov 1967

Barbeau, Marius, and Creighton, Helen. 'The rediscovery of folk music,' Canadian Geographical J, vol 84, Mar 1972

Fowke, Edith. 'Anglo-Canadian folksong: a survey,' Ethnomusicology, vol 16, Sep 1972

Kallmann, Helmut. 'Towards a bibliography of Canadian folk music,' ibid

Cass-Beggs, Barbara, and Fowke, Edith. 'A reference list on Canadian folk music,' CFMJ, vol 1, 1973; rev, enlarged, CFMJ, vol 6, 1978.; rev, enlarged, CFMJ, vol 11, 1983

Catalogue of Canadian Folk Music in the Mary Mellish Archibald Library and Other Special Collections, (Sackville, NB 1974)

'Folklore Canada,' 10th Conference of the CMCouncil: a report,' CMB, 9, Autumn-Winter 1974

Pelinski, Ramón. 'The music of Canada's ethnic minorities,' CMB, 10, Spring-Summer 1975

Hogan, Dorothy. 'Canadian folk music: a foundation for cultural identity,' Recorder, vol 18, Sep 1975

Posen, Shelley. 'Explorations in Canadian folklore,' Quill and Quire, Jul 1976

Fowke, Edith. 'In the past... earlier Canadian folk magazines,' Canada Folk Bulletin, vol 2, Mar-Apr 1979

Bartlett, Jon, and Ruebsaat, Rika. 'The state of the art: the folk revival in Canada,' Canada Folk Bulletin, vol 3, Sep-Dec 1980

Fowke, Edith and Carpenter, Carole. A Bibliography of Canadian Folklore in English (Toronto 1981)

Peacock, Kenneth. 'Folk and aboriginal music,' Aspects of Music in Canada/'La musique folklorique et aborigène,' Aspects de la musique au Canada

Barbeau, Marius. 'Folk-song,' Music in Canada

Periodicals
Singalong, Vancouver Feb 1957-Jul 1958

Sing and String, Toronto, 9 issues, 1959-Fall 1965

CFMS (CSMT) Newsletter/Bulletin. Jul 1965-

Hoot, Aug 1963-Feb/Mar 1967

Chansons populaires, 7 issues, ca 1970

Pourquoi chanter, ca 1977-ca 1978

Canada Folk Bulletin, Vancouver, Jan/Feb 1978-Sep/Dec 80

Canadian Folk Music Journal (/ Revue de musique folklorique canadienne from 1983), 1973- 1995, continued by Canadian Journal for Traditional Music ( / Revue de musique folklorique canadienne), annual 1996-

Author Kenneth Peacock, Carmelle Bégin

Links to Other Sites
MacEdward Leach and the Songs of Atlantic Canada
This site features transcriptions and audio clips of traditonal Cape Breton and Newfoundland folk songs in the Leach collection. Click on the menu items on the home page for a biography of MacEdward Leach, profiles of singers, commentary about the historical significance of local tunes and music genres, and more. From the Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Archive.

Staying in Tune: Traditions and Musical Instruments of the Francophonie
Experience world music and culture as you listen to the distinctive sounds of traditional musical instruments, such as the African balafon, in this multimedia Virtual Museum website.

Ontario Council of Folk Festivals
A directory of folk and roots music festivals in Ontario. Also features the society’s newsletter "Folk Prints." From the Ontario Council of Folk Festivals.

CJTM: Canadian Journal for Traditional Music
Access a vast archive of full text articles from previous issues of the CJTM. A great information source about traditional music in Canada.

Irish Rovers
The official website for one of the most enduringly popular Celtic bands, the Irish Rovers. Features biographies, tour dates, discography, music samples, and more.

Helen Creighton
Helen Creighton, folklorist and folksong collector, is profiled at this Library and Archives Canada website. Includes a sound clip of a folk song she collected.

Penguin Eggs
Check out Penguin Eggs magazine for current news about Canada’s folk scene. Features sample articles and music reviews.

Canadian Folk Music Awards
The website for the Canadian Folk Music Awards.

Leahy
The website for the award-winning band “Leahy.” Features current news, profiles, and a discography with audio clips.

Stony Plain Records
The website for legendary recording company Stony Plain Records, home of the blues, classic R&B, folk, country, bluegrass, rock and roll, and music that "defies categorization." Click on "Releases" for music clips from selected recordings.

Valdy
The website for Valdy, popular Juno award winning folk singer, story-teller and guitarist. Great selection of music clips.

Gary Fjellgaard
The website for Gary Fjellgaard, award winning western roots singer-songwriter.

folkwaysAlive!
The website for folkwaysAlive! Check out the latest news about their collections and educational programs. From the University of Alberta’s Canadian Centre for Ethnomusicology in collaboration with Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Kerrville Music Festivals
A Texas tradition, the Kerrville Music Festivals feature some of the world’s best folk singers. Many links to musicians’ websites.

Gordon Lightfoot
Click on the album covers to access audio clips from recordings featuring Gordon Lightfoot. From Rhino Entertainment.

John Spearn
Canadian history comes alive in the songs of roots and folk singer John Spearn. His website features music clips, album notes, information about his “Canada Songs” CD and more.

April Verch
The website for versatile Canadian fiddler April Verch. See her biography, tour schedule, and online multimedia.

A History of Folk Music in English Canada
A historical overview of Anglo-Canadian folk music written by Gary Cristall, former director of the Vancouver Folk Festival.

The British Columbia Folklore Society
Devoted to collecting and preserving the traditional and contemporary folk life and folklore of British Columbia. Their extensive website focuses on folktales and songs, rites and customs, material culture and much more.

Helen Creighton
A virtual exhibit dedicated to one of Canada's best-known folklorists – a pioneer researcher, collector, and author. From Nova Scotia Archives & Records Management.

Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame
The website for the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame, an organization dedicated to promoting Canadian popular music songwriters. Check out the annual list of inductees and click on a name to read an inductee’s biography. Also offers video highlights of previous award ceremonies.

Phonothèque québécoise
The Phonothèque québécoise / Musée du son is a non-profit organization dedicated to conserving Québec's sound heritage. Their website features an extensive multimedia archive that showcases the colourful history of Québec’s dynamic recorded music and broadcasting sectors. With French and English sections.

Just Call Me Al
Click on the links to full text articles about the life and musical career of Alan Mills, one of the first folk singers to popularize Canadian folk songs in both English and French. From the “Canadian Folk Music Bulletin.” PDF files.

The Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs
A review of the highly recommended "The Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs." Keith MacMillan was the music consultant for this book. A Manitoba Library Association website.

Musique du Québec
Information about recordings dedicated to the music of Québec. From the Audio-Archives.com website.

Ottawa Folklore Centre
The website for the Ottawa Folklore Centre offers news and information about Ottawa's lively folk music scene, musical instruments, educational programs, and more.

CBC Music
Listen to recordings by your favourite musicians at the website for CBC Music.

Cisco Ottawa Bluesfest
The website for the Cisco Ottawa Bluesfest, an annual event that showcases local, regional, national and international talent. Check out the performer profiles and program schedules.

In Memory of Sam Gesser, 1930–2008
A tribute to the legendary Canadian music producer and promoter Sam Gesser. Click on the link “Classic Canadian Songs from Smithsonian Folkways” to listen to music clips from this recording. From the website “folkwaysAlive!”

East Coast Music Association
The website for the East Coast Music Association, an organization dedicated to celebrating East Coast music. Check their site for the latest news about festivals and awards. Click on “Multimedia” for audio and video clips from previous awards shows.

Whispering Pines
A review of a book that surveys the Canadian origin of some of the 20th century’s most famous American popular music. From the "Quill & Quire" website.

Classic Canadian Songs from Smithsonian Folkways
Listen to audio clips at this website about Canadian Folkways albums. This site features a mixture of field and studio recordings, representing Aboriginal and immigrant, vocal and instrumental, and traditional and contemporary folk music. From the Canadian Centre for Ethnomusicology at the University of Alberta.

Miramichi Folksong Festival
The website for the popular Miramichi Folksong Festival, which focuses on authentic, traditional, and contemporary folk music.

Canadian Society for Traditional Music
Features a substantial online catalogue of Canadian folk and traditional music recordings and full text articles from the quarterly magazine "Canadian Folk Music."

Comhairle na Gàidhlig: The Gaelic Council of Nova Scotia
The website for the Gaelic Council of Nova Scotia. Check out "Nova Scotia's Gaelic Culture" for articles on Gaelic language, music, dance, and more.

Dr. Neil Rosenberg
A profile of Dr. Neil Rosenberg, Professor Emeritus, Department of Folkore, Memorial University of Newfoundland.

Songwriters Association of Canada
The website for the Songwriters Association of Canada, a national arts service organization dedicated exclusively to Canadian composers, lyricists and songwriters. Provides online access to articles from "Songwriters Magazine."

Folk singer Kate McGarrigle dies
A CBC article about the passing of popular folk singer Kate McGarrigle. Includes a video of one of her performances.

Art Scammell - My Newfoundland
Listen to audio tracks of Art Scammell performing "Squid-Jiggin' Ground" and other Newfoundland folk songs. From the "Museum of Canadian Music" website.

Folk Arts Society
The website for the Folk Arts Society, which promotes the public’s understanding and appreciation of Newfoundland and Labrador folk arts through staging folk festivals and other events. Check out upcoming events and the photos and notes from previous festivals. Also includes links to websites for selected festival performers.

In which Lorne Brown talks with Jerry Gray of the Travellers
Read the text of a wide-ranging interview of Jerry Gray, part of the popular Canadian folk band The Travellers. From "The Canadian Folk Music BULLETIN" website.

Helen Creighton Folklore Society
The website for the Helen Creighton Folklore Society. Click on "About HC" and then "Film" to view a preview of "A Sigh and a Wish: Helen Creighton’s Maritimes," a documentary film about the life and work of Helen Creighton. For more information and multimedia about Helen Creighton and songs and folklore of the Maritimes, click on the links in the menu at the top of the page.

Canada's Story in Song
Listen to sample audio clips from a recording of Canadian folk songs performed by Alan Mills and produced by Edith Fulton Fowke. From the Smithsonian Folkways website.

The Penguin Book of Canadian Folk Songs
A review of a compilation of folk songs selected and edited by Edith Fowke. From the Manitoba Library Association.

Edith Fowke 2000 Folk Alliance International Lifetime Achievement Award Recipient
Watch a video devoted to Edith Fowke and her passion for collecting and preserving Canada's folk music heritage. From YouTube.

The Enright Files - The Power of Folk Music
Listen to a CBC Radio audio clip featuring Michael Enright (The Sunday Edition) in conversation with folk music legend Oscar Brand and country star Ian Tyson.